Migraine - Functional Nutrition Library

What is migraine?

Migraine is a complex neurological disorder characterized by moderate to severe headaches that often occur on one side of the head and are accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea and sensitivity to light or sound (1).

How common is migraine?

Migraine affects 1 out of every 10 people worldwide. In the United States, approximately 1 out of every 6 people are affected (2, 3).

Women are twice as likely to have migraine, compared to men (2).

What are the symptoms of a migraine attack?

Migraine attacks can progress through four different phases: prodrome, aura, headache, and postdrome, each with distinct symptoms. However, not all patients experience every phase.

Prodromal phase

During the prodromal phase (24-48 hours before a migraine attack), the following symptoms are common (4, 5):

Depression
Fatigue
Food cravings
Irritability
Muscle tenderness
Neck stiffness
Sensitivity to light, sound, or smell
Yawning

Aura phase

After the prodromal phase, 25% of patients enter the aura phase, in which symptoms gradually develop and can last for 5-60 minutes each (5, 6).

Visual auras affect vision in both eyes. They are the most common, accounting for up to 98% of migraine auras. Symptoms vary widely but may include the following (7, 8, 9):

Blind spots
Flickering lights
Bright flashes of light
Foggy or blurred vision
Zigzag or jagged lines
Visual snow

Sensory auras affect the body’s sensory perceptions. They are also common, accounting for approximately 36% of migraine auras. The most common symptoms include (7, 9):

Numbness
Tingling

Language auras (also called aphasic auras) affect a person’s speaking ability. They account for around 10% of migraine auras, and symptoms may include (7, 9):

Slurred speech
Inability to speak

Motor auras affect the body’s movements. They are rare and occur in people with hemiplegic migraine, a type of migraine with aura. Symptoms include the following (7, 10):

Muscle weakness

Brainstem auras originate in the brainstem or both cerebral hemispheres at the same time. They are rare and can mimic the symptoms of a stroke, such as the following (7, 11):

Slurred speech
Spinning sensation
Ringing in ears
Impaired hearing
Double vision
Uncoordinated movements
Decreased consciousness

Retinal auras are very rare and occur in only one eye, unlike typical visual auras. Symptoms include (7, 12):

Twinkling lights
Blind spots in vision
Temporary blindness

It’s possible to have multiple types of auras in one migraine attack. The most common aura progression is visual → sensory → language, but they can occur in any order (7).

Headache phase

These are the most common symptoms that occur during the headache phase, which lasts for 4-72 hours (13):

Moderate or severe pain
Nausea and/or vomiting
Sensitivity to light, sound, and/or smell
Throbbing or pulsating pain
Unilateral pain (on one side of the head)

Postdrome phase

The postdrome phase, also called the “migraine hangover,” lasts for 1-2 days after the headache phase, and can be accompanied by the following symptoms (14):

Fatigue
Impaired concentration
Neck stiffness
Mood changes

What causes migraine?

Scientists aren’t entirely sure what causes migraine, but a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors seem to play a significant role, resulting in changes to how the brain processes sensory information (15).

Genetic predisposition

More than 38 migraine-associated genetic SNPs have been discovered (16).

It is thought that these genetic SNPs contribute to migraine by increasing nervous system excitability, the likelihood that a neuron will be activated by a given stimulus (17, 18).

People who have a parent with migraine have a 40% chance of developing migraine, and that risk increases to 75% if both parents are affected (18).

Twin studies have shown that genetics account for up to 60% of the risk for developing migraine, while environmental factors play a role in the other 40% (18).

Precipitating factors

Typically, one or more precipitating factors (also called triggers) initiate the migraine attack. Some common migraine triggers include (19, 20):

Alcohol
Diet
Dehydration
Exposure to bright lights, loud noise, or strong odors
Fasting (or skipping meals)
Hormonal changes (especially estrogen)
Medications
Sleep disturbances
Stress
Weather changes

Migraine threshold theory (also referred to as bucket theory) suggests that each individual has a threshold — the point at which they’ll experience a migraine attack after exposure to triggers (21, 22).

These triggers accumulate over a period of hours or days, getting closer to the migraine threshold until “the bucket overflows,” causing an attack. The goal is to raise your threshold with treatment.

Trigeminovascular dysfunction

The trigeminovascular system refers to the network of small sensory neurons within the trigeminal nerve (the largest nerve in the brain) that innervate cerebral blood vessels (23, 24).

In people with migraine, the trigeminal nerve is activated by one or more migraine triggers, causing it to release neuropeptides such as (25):

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP)
Substance P

These neuropeptides promote inflammation, cause blood vessels to dilate, and activate pain responses, resulting in migraine symptoms.

Other mechanisms involved

Migraine aura is thought to be caused by cortical spreading depression (CSD), a wave of electrical activity that spreads through the cortex of the brain, suppressing brain activity (26).

Mitochondrial dysfunction is also thought to increase susceptibility to migraines by increasing neuronal excitability (the readiness of a nerve to respond to a stimulus) (27).

Abnormal serotonin metabolism resulting in low levels of serotonin (a neurotransmitter also known as 5-HT) may cause blood vessel dilation and the initiation of migraine (28, 29).

Mast cell activation in the brain causes the release of pro-inflammatory and vasodilatory chemicals, including PACAP and histamine (30, 31, 32).

Gut dysbiosis may influence migraine via the gut-brain axis by increasing inflammation and decreasing serotonin levels (33, 34, 35).

What conditions are linked with migraine?

Psychiatric disorders

Patients with migraines are 2.5 times more likely to be diagnosed with depression and up to 5 times more likely to meet the criteria for at least one anxiety disorder (36).

Scientists believe that possible mechanisms might include medication overuse, serotonin dysfunction, hormone fluctuations, and increased neuronal responsiveness to pain (37, 38).

Irritable bowel syndrome

A 2022 meta-analysis of 11 studies found that the odds of developing irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) was 2.5 times higher in people with migraine compared to those without migraine (39).

This link between migraine and IBS may be partially explained by the gut-brain axis, a term used to describe the interactions between gut bacteria, immune responses, and neural pathways (35, 40)

Stroke

People who have migraine with aura are 2 times more likely to have an ischemic stroke, a life-threatening condition that occurs when blood flow to the brain is blocked by a blood clot (41).

Combined oral contraceptives (that contain estrogen) further increase the risk of stroke, so these medications are typically not recommended for people with migraine with aura (42, 43).

Epilepsy

According to a 2024 meta-analysis, people with migraine have an 80% increased risk of developing epilepsy during their lifetime, compared to those without migraine (44).

Epilepsy and migraine share many of the same pathophysiological mechanisms, such as cortical spreading depression (CSD), and neuronal hyperexcitability (45).

Histamine intolerance

Histamine intolerance occurs when the body can’t adequately break down histamine, a chemical that is released from immune cells and may play a role in migraine pathogenesis (46).

A 2018 study found that about 87% of people with migraine were deficient in diamine oxidase (DAO), an enzyme that breaks down histamine in the body (47).

Hypothyroidism

According to a 2016 study, people with headache disorders, including migraine, had a 21% higher risk of developing new-onset hypothyroidism (48).

It is thought that thyroid functioning might impact migraine development via the hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid (HPA) axis, which plays a role in pain regulation (49).

MTHFR

A 2023 meta-analysis found that people with the MTHFR C677T polymorphism had a 19% higher risk of developing migraine (50).

Scientists believe MTHFR gene mutations might contribute to migraine by increasing homocysteine levels, which causes oxidative stress and damage to blood vessels (51).

Fibromyalgia

The prevalence of fibromyalgia in patients with migraines has ranged from 22-66% in various studies (52, 53, 54).

Scientists haven’t been able to explain the link between migraines and fibromyalgia, although they do share similar features related to pain processing (55).

How is migraine diagnosed?

The following criteria are used to diagnose the three main types of migraine headache disorders, as defined by the International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd Edition (ICHD-3) (6):

Migraine without aura

At least five attacks fulfilling criteria 2-4.
Headache attacks lasting 4-72 hours (untreated or unsuccessfully treated).
Headache has at least two of the following characteristics:
- Unilateral location (occurring on one side of the head)
- Pulsating quality
- Moderate or severe pain intensity
- Aggravation by or causing avoidance of routine physical activity (e.g., walking or climbing stairs)
During headache, at least one of the following:
- Nausea and/or vomiting
- Photophobia (light sensitivity) and phonophobia (sound sensitivity)
Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis.

Migraine with aura

At least two attacks fulfilling criteria 2 and 3.
One or more of the following fully reversible aura symptoms:
- Visual (occurring in both eyes: seeing spots, flashes, zig zags, stars, or losing sight for short periods of time)
- Sensory (numbness, tingling)
- Speech and/or language (difficulty speaking)
- Motor (weakness)
- Brainstem [dysarthria (slurred speech), vertigo (spinning sensation), tinnitus (ringing in ears), hypacusis (impaired hearing), diplopia (double vision), ataxia (unsteady/uncoordinated movements), decreased level of consciousness]
- Retinal [occuring in only one eye: scintillations (twinkling lights), scotomata (blind spots), temporary blindness]
At least three of the following characteristics:
- At least one aura symptom spreads gradually over >/=5 minutes
- Two or more symptoms occur in succession
- Each individual aura symptom lasts 5-60 minutes
- At least one aura symptom is unilateral
- At least one aura symptom is positive
- The aura is accompanied, or followed within 60 minutes, by headache
Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis, and transient ischemic attack has been excluded.

Chronic migraine

Headache (tension-type-like and/or migraine-like) on >/=15 days per month for >3 months and fulfilling criteria 2 and 3.
Occurring in a patient who has had at least five attacks fulfilling criteria 2-4 for migraine without aura and/or criteria 2 and 3 for migraine with aura.
On >/=8 days per month for >3 months, fulfilling any of the following:
- criteria 3 and 4 for migraine without aura
- criteria 2 and 3 for migraine with aura
- believed by the patient to be migraine at onset and relieved by a triptan or ergot derivative
Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis.

How is migraine typically treated?

Migraine is treated with a combination of abortive and preventative medications, along with alternative treatments like neuromodulation devices. Patients are also advised to avoid triggers.

Trigger avoidance

Doctors often recommend that people with migraine keep a headache diary in order to identify triggers. It may be helpful to track food intake, stress levels, sleep quality, and physical activity.

Being aware of potential triggers allows patients to make informed decisions about lifestyle changes that might decrease the frequency or severity of migraines.

Abortive medications

The following medications may be used to abort (stop) a migraine attack that has already started (56):

OTC painkillers

Over-the-counter pain medications are the first-line treatment for mild to moderate migraine attacks. These include NSAIDs, acetaminophen, and combination analgesics (57, 58).

NSAIDs (ibuprofen, aspirin, and naproxen, etc.) work by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, a group of compounds that cause inflammation and pain (57, 59).

Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is sometimes used but tends to be less effective than NSAIDs for migraine attacks, and it’s not fully understood how it might work (57, 58).

Excedrin Migraine is a combination of acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine. It is very effective for treating migraine attacks (58, 60).

Triptans

If OTC medications fail, or if the migraine is severe, triptans may be prescribed. They work by binding to serotonin receptors on blood vessels, which causes them to constrict (57, 61).

Examples of triptans include sumatriptan, naratriptan, rizatriptan, eletriptan, frovatriptan, zolmitriptan, and almotriptan.

Gepants

Certain CGRP inhibitors, known as gepants, can be used as abortive migraine medications. These include ubrogepant (Ubrelvy) and rimegepant (Nurtec) (62).

Because they are newer and more expensive, gepants are often reserved for patients who have contraindications to triptans or who have failed to respond to or tolerate at least two oral triptans.

Ditans

Ditans are a new class of abortive migraine medications that act as serotonin 5-HT1F receptor agonists. They work by preventing the trigeminal nerve from releasing CGRP and glutamate (63).

Lasmiditan (Reyvow) is currently the only drug in this category. Similar to Ubrelvy and Nurtec, it is prescribed for patients who have contraindications to or can’t tolerate triptans (57).

Ergotamines

Ergotamines are an older class of medications that work similarly to triptans binding to serotonin receptors, causing blood vessels to constrict and relieving pain caused by vasodilation (57).

However, they are rarely used today, because they are less effective and have more side effects than triptans (64).

Antiemetics

When a patient has nausea or vomiting associated with a migraine, antiemetics such as metoclopramide (Reglan) or ondansetron (Zofran) may be used alongside abortive medications (57).

Preventive medications

These medications are used to reduce the frequency and severity of migraines (65):

Antihypertensives

Certain antihypertensive (blood pressure-lowering) medications may be used off-label to prevent migraines:

Beta-blockers may interact with serotonin and the trigeminovascular system (66, 67).
- Examples: propranolol, metoprolol, timolol, nadolol, and atenolol.
Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) may work against migraines by reducing neuronal excitability (66, 68).
- Examples: flunarizine and verapamil.
Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) block the effects of angiotensin. They may be helpful for migraines, but the mechanism for this effect is unclear (69, 70).
- Examples: candesartan and lisinopril.

Antiepileptics

Topiramate and sodium valproate are the two antiepileptic (anti-seizure) medications that have been studied and proven effective for migraine prevention (57).

It’s unclear exactly how these drugs protect against migraines, but they may be involved in reducing CGRP secretion from trigeminal neurons (66).

Antidepressants

Several antidepressants are considered “probably effective” for treating migraines even though they haven’t been FDA-approved for migraine treatment:

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin. They also block the actions acetylcholine and histamine (71, 72, 73).
- Examples: amitriptyline and nortriptyline.
Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs) increase levels of serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain (74, 75, 76).
- Examples: venlafaxine and duloxetine.

CGRP inhibitors

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) inhibitors are the newest migraine medications. They work by blocking the activity of CGRP, a neuropeptide involved in the development of migraines (77).

To be eligible for these medications, you must have had an inability to tolerate (due to side effects) or inadequate response to an 8-week trial of at least two other preventative medications (78).

There are two types of CGRP inhibitors:

CGRP monoclonal antibodies are injectable medications that block either CGRP or its receptor and are used as a preventive treatment.

Examples include erenumab (Aimovig), eptinezumab (Vyepti), galcanezumab (Emgality), and fremanezumab (Ajovy).

CGRP receptor antagonists, also called “gepants,” are oral medications that block the CGRP receptor and are used for both abortive and preventative treatment.

Examples include rimegepant (Nurtec ODT), ubrogepant (Ubrelvy), atogepant (Qulipta), and zavegepant (Zavzpret).

Botulinum toxin (Botox)

Botulinum toxin type A (also known as Botox) is a neurotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, the bacteria responsible for botulism (79).

For migraines, Botox is injected near nerve fibers in the head, where it blocks the release of neurotransmitters responsible for causing pain (80).

Botox injections are FDA-approved for the treatment of chronic migraines (15 or more headache days per month) (79).

Neuromodulation devices

Neuromodulation devices are designed to treat or prevent migraine attacks by delivering electrical or magnetic currents to the specific nerves or regions in the brain associated with migraine (81).

Several neuromodulation devices have been FDA-cleared for the prevention and treatment of migraine headaches, including the following:

Cefaly uses external trigeminal nerve stimulation (eTNS) to stimulate and desensitize the trigeminal nerve over time. It is worn on the forehead, just above the eyes.
Nerivio is worn on the upper arm, where it delivers electrical stimulation to Aδ and C nerve fibers. This activates the body’s conditioned pain modulation (CPM) system, which signals the brainstem to release serotonin and norepinephrine.
Relivion stimulates both the occipital and trigeminal nerves to inhibit pain, It is shaped like a headband that wraps around the forehead and the base of the neck.
gammaCore is a portable handheld device that delivers electrical stimulation to the vagus nerve, helping to block the pain signals that cause migraine attacks.
SAVI dual is a single pulse transcranial magnetic stimulator (sTMS) that delivers low frequency electromagnetic fields to calm hyperactive nerves in the brain.
HeadaTerm 2 uses eTNS to stimulate the supraorbital and supratrochlear nerves, both of which are involved in migraine attacks. It is worn on the forehead, similar to Cefaly.

These devices have minimal side effects and can be used alongside medications without increasing the risk of rebound headaches. However, the current quality of the evidence is very poor and more studies are needed (82, 83).

What is medication overuse headache?

An estimated 50% of people with chronic migraine have medication overuse headaches (MOH), also called rebound headaches, which occur as a result of taking too many abortive medications (84, 85).

This happens because, over time, these medications actually change the way the nervous system processes pain, making the brain more sensitive and lowering the migraine threshold (86).

In people with migraine, MOH is diagnosed when abortive medications have been overused for at least 3 months and headaches are chronic (occurring on at least 15 days/month) (84).

Abortive medications are considered to be “overused” when taken more than 10 or 15 days/month, depending on the type of medication (87, 88, 89, 90):

Acetaminophen (Tylenol): ≥15 days/month
NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen, aspirin, etc.): ≥15 days/month
Combined analgesics (Excedrin migraine): ≥10 days/month
Triptans: ≥10 days/month

MOH is typically treated by stopping (or tapering off) the medications that caused it and starting preventative therapy. Sometimes, steroids are prescribed to help manage pain during this time (85).

To reduce the risk of MOH, most doctors recommend limiting the use of abortive medication to no more than 2 days/week (or 10 days/month) (85).

Published guidelines for migraine

The International Headache Society (IHS) has created the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD), a system used to define and classify all known headache disorders.

A new edition is in the works, but you can access the most recent published version here:

Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS) The International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition

The American Headache Society (AHS) publishes guidelines and position statements for migraine treatment from time to time. Here are their most recent publications:

The American Academy of Neurology (AAN) also provides migraine treatment guidelines (often published jointly with the AHS). Here are their most recent publications:

Nutrition-specific guidelines

There are no nutrition-specific guidelines for migraine from any of the above associations.

What foundational nutrition interventions might be helpful?

It may be helpful to focus on foundational diet strategies, such as hydration, eating enough, and gut support, before moving on to supplements and other more advanced interventions.

Adequate hydration

Headaches are a common symptom of dehydration in people with and without migraine, and people who drink more water tend to have fewer migraine attacks (91, 92).

The Adequate Intake (AI) for fluid (in the form of beverages) is 13 cups per day for men and 9 cups for women. This assumes that additional fluid is also being consumed from food (93).

Some people may need additional support with electrolytes, especially those that are very physically active or spend a lot of time in hot environments (94).

Eating enough

Skipping meals, intentional fasting, and malnutrition are well-known migraine triggers (95, 96).

Research shows that the frequency of migraine attacks increases significantly during Ramadan, a month-long period during which Muslims fast from food and water daily from dawn until sunset (97).

Additionally, people who meet the criteria for malnutrition are up to 5 times more likely to have migraine compared to those with a healthy nutritional status (98).

Balancing blood sugar

Maintaining consistent blood glucose levels (and avoiding hypoglycemia) may help protect against migraine attacks (99).

Astrocytes, a type of brain cell involved in migraine attacks, release inflammatory compounds in low-glucose conditions, possibly due to mitochondrial dysfunction (100).

Choosing fiber-rich carbohydrates and pairing them with protein sources can help slow the absorption of sugars and prevent large spikes in blood glucose after meals (101, 102).

Lowering inflammation

Inflammation plays a key role in migraine pathogenesis, and people with migraine tend to have higher levels of certain inflammatory markers, including CRP, IL-6, and TNF-alpha (103).

Following an anti-inflammatory diet, such as the Mediterranean diet, may help lower inflammation and protect against migraine attacks (104, 105).

Generally, diets higher in fruits, vegetables, and other plant-based foods, and lower in added sugars and ultra-processed foods are linked with lower levels of inflammation (106).

Supporting gut health

Gut dysbiosis, increased intestinal permeability (leaky gut), and intestinal inflammation are thought to contribute to migraine development via the gut-brain axis (107).

People with migraine tend to eat less fiber, an important nutrient for supporting the gut microbiome, and are more likely to have certain gastrointestinal conditions like H. pylori infection, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), or celiac disease (107, 108).

Addressing any underlying gut issues, such as H. pylori infection, may improve migraine symptoms. Some practitioners choose to use functional stool testing for guidance (109).

Other strategies to improve gut health include reducing added sugars and alcohol, and increasing prebiotic fiber (inulin, FOS, GOS), polyphenols, and fermented foods (110).

Avoiding food triggers

The most common diet-related advice given to people with migraine is to avoid migraine food triggers. Keeping a food diary may provide clues about which foods are contributing to attacks.

However, it’s important to weigh the risks and benefits of restricting foods — it could make mealtimes more stressful and contribute to nutrient deficiencies and disordered eating (111).

This approach also fails to consider the bigger picture of nutrition’s role in migraine prevention. For example, eliminating foods may harm the gut microbiome, which plays a role in brain health (112).

Avoiding potential food triggers may be helpful for some but is unlikely to resolve symptoms on its own. There are plenty of other strategies that don’t involve eliminating favorite foods.

What are some potential food triggers?

Foods don’t cause migraine, but certain foods may trigger migraine attacks. These triggers vary from person to person, so keeping a food and headache diary may be helpful for identifying them.

Alcohol

Alcohol is known to cause headaches that typically begin with 5 to 12 hours of consumption and resolve within 72 hours (113).

Certain types of alcohol, especially red wine, are reported as a migraine trigger in around 30% of people with migraine, but only 10% say that alcohol consistently triggers attacks (114, 115).

It’s unknown whether alcohol itself or components of alcohol (histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, sulfites, etc.) could be responsible for triggering migraine attacks (114).

Verdict: Alcohol, particularly wine, can trigger migraine attacks, but more research is needed to understand why this occurs.

Aspartame

Aspartame is an artificial sweetener consisting of phenylalanine and aspartic acid. It is thought that these amino acids could trigger migraines by inhibiting serotonin and other neurotransmitters (116).

A few older studies have shown an increase in migraine frequency with aspartame (Equal, NutraSweet) consumption (>/=300 mg/day), but results are mixed and quality is low (117, 118, 119).

In a 2015 RCT, participants were given 100 mg of aspartame or placebo. There was no difference in headaches between people believed to have aspartame sensitivity compared to controls (120).

Verdict: Evidence to support aspartame as a migraine trigger is very weak.

Caffeine

The role of caffeine in migraines is complex. Depending on the situation, it can either be beneficial or harmful for people with migraine.

How it helps

Caffeine is effective for stopping a migraine attack once it has started. That’s why it is included in certain abortive medications, such as Excedrin Migraine.

It is thought that caffeine might protect against migraine symptoms by causing vasoconstriction and inhibiting adenosine, which increases during attacks (121).

How it harms

Excessive caffeine intake (≥ 400 mg/day) is linked with a higher risk of migraine, and between 2% and 30% of people with migraine report caffeine as one of their triggers (121, 122).

Additionally, people who regularly consume more than 200 mg/day may become dependent on it. This increases the likelihood of developing caffeine withdrawal headaches after stopping (123).

It’s unclear exactly how caffeine might trigger migraine attacks. However, we do know that caffeine has a diuretic effect, which could lead to dehydration (a known migraine trigger) (121).

Caffeine also causes the kidneys to excrete more magnesium, a mineral that protects against neuroinflammation and may help prevent migraine attacks (121, 124).

Verdict: Caffeine can be combined with medications to abort a migraine, but long-term consumption (>200 mg/day) increases the risk of developing caffeine dependency.

Chocolate

Chocolate is frequently reported as a migraine trigger in observational studies. It contains low levels of tyramine and phenylethylamine, which could theoretically trigger migraine attacks (125, 126).

However, clinical trials have failed to show a significant effect of chocolate on the development of migraine attacks when compared to a placebo (127, 128, 129).

Some animal studies also suggest that cocoa powder could actually protect against migraine attacks by reducing the release of CGRP and inflammatory mediators (130).

Verdict: Clinical trials do not support the idea that chocolate triggers migraines, and animal research suggests it may even have protective effects.

Citrus fruits

Citrus fruits, such as oranges, limes, and lemons, are thought to trigger headaches in some people. An older study found that 11% of patients reported citrus fruits as a migraine trigger (131).

However, there is no proposed mechanism to explain why this might occur, and no clinical trials have been performed to evaluate the effects of citrus fruit consumption on migraines.

There are very small amounts of histamine (≤2 mg/kg) and tyramine (≤5 mg/kg) in citrus fruits and their juices, but this is also true of many other fruits and vegetables (132).

Verdict: There is no scientific evidence that citrus fruits or juices trigger migraine attacks.

Gluten

Celiac disease and gluten sensitivity are linked with migraines, and removing gluten from the diet can help decrease or eliminate migraines in these patients (133, 134, 135).

However, there is no evidence that a gluten-free diet can reduce migraines in patients without these conditions (136).

Verdict: Following a gluten-free diet is unlikely to reduce migraine attacks unless someone has celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, or other gluten-related disorders.

Histamine

Histamine is a compound released by immune cells in response to a perceived threat, such as an allergen. It may act as a migraine trigger by increasing neurogenic inflammation (137, 138).

Fermented foods, such aged cheeses, wine, and soy sauce, tend to be high in histamine along with cured meats, leftover foods, and some fresh fruits and vegetables (139).

A 1993 study tested the effects of a histamine-free diet on symptoms in 45 patients with chronic headaches and found that headache frequency was significantly reduced after 4 weeks (140).

Verdict: Limited research suggests that dietary histamine may act as a trigger for migraine attacks in certain people, likely those with histamine intolerance.

Nitrates and nitrites

Nitrates and nitrites are compounds that occur naturally but are also used as preservatives in food products, such as lunch meat, sausages, and bacon.

In the body, they are converted to nitric oxide, which acts as a signaling molecule and causes blood vessels to dilate (141).

Although nitric oxide may play a role in the development of migraines, we couldn’t find any evidence linking consumption of nitrates or nitrites with migraines (142).

Verdict: There is no published evidence that dietary nitrates or nitrites trigger migraines.

Monosodium glutamate

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, a nonessential amino acid. It is found naturally in certain foods and is also used as a flavor enhancer for cooking (143).

Despite anecdotal reports of MSG causing migraines, research findings are inconsistent and have a high risk for bias. Most studies have used doses much higher than typical consumption (144, 145).

Myths about MSG’s effects on health, which began in the United States during the 1960s, have also been tied to xenophobia toward Asian culture (143, 146).

Verdict: Current research suggests MSG is unlikely to trigger migraine attacks.

Sulfites

Sulfites are compounds that are commonly used as preservatives and can be found naturally (in lower amounts) in some foods, such as wine, dried fruits, and pickled vegetables (147).

A small 2019 study found that people with a history of wine-induced headaches had a greater risk of getting a headache after consuming high-sulfite wine compared to low-sulfite wine (148).

However, dried fruits (especially apricots) often have significantly higher concentrations of sulfites and aren’t reported as headache triggers nearly as frequently as wine (149).

It’s possible that sulfites trigger migraine attacks, especially in people with DAO deficiency, by causing mast cells to release histamine. However, more research is needed (150).

Verdict: There is some evidence that sulfites can trigger migraine attacks, but more research is needed.

Tyramine

Tyramine is a compound that is formed when bacteria break down the amino acid tyrosine. It is found mainly in cured meats and fermented foods, such as aged cheese and soy sauce (151).

Foods high in tyramine are commonly reported as migraine triggers. It is thought that tyramine might cause symptoms by dilating blood vessels (95, 152).

However, older studies examining the ability of tyramine to initiate migraines have failed to reach statistical significance (153, 154, 155, 156).

Verdict: Evidence to support tyramine as a trigger for migraine attacks is weak. Many high-tyramine foods are also high in histamine.

How do different diets affect migraine?

Research on diets for migraine prevention is limited, but it may be helpful to focus on carbohydrate quality and quantity. Elimination diets that identify food triggers are also commonly used.

Elimination diets

Inflammation plays a large role in the development of migraines and it’s possible that food sensitivities could contribute to this (157, 158).

Elimination diets remove certain foods or food groups for a short period of time to identify food sensitivities or migraine triggers before gradually reintroducing them (159).

The Heal Your Headache (HYH) elimination diet, based on the book by Dr. David Buchholz, is popular among people with migraine. It recommends avoiding the following foods (160):

Alcohol: especially red wine, champagne, and dark/heavy drinks
Fruits: all citrus fruits and juices, avocados, bananas, canned figs, pineapple, raisins, and red plums
Vegetables: lima beans, fava beans, navy beans, pea pods, sauerkraut, and onions
Grains: yeast-risen bread products less than one day old
Nuts: all nuts and nut butters
Meats: anything aged, canned, cured, marinated, tenderized, or containing nitrates and nitrites, such as hot dogs, sausage, bacon, salami, and bologna
Dairy products: yogurt, sour cream, buttermilk, and all cheeses
Other: aspartame, monosodium glutamate (MSG), caffeine, vinegar, chocolate

So far, there haven’t been any trials on the effectiveness of HYH for migraine prevention, and there is limited evidence to suggest that the foods on this list actually act as migraine triggers.

Among dietitians, the Mediator Release Test (MRT) is popular for identifying food sensitivities. It can be combined with the LEAP diet protocol to create a personalized elimination diet.

A 2021 retrospective study found that MRT + LEAP significantly reduced global symptoms, as well as symptoms related to the head/ears in people with migraine (161).

However, migraine-specific outcomes, such as the frequency and severity of attacks, weren’t reported. Higher-quality research is needed.

It’s also important to note that elimination diets can be particularly difficult for identifying migraine triggers. Reactions are often delayed (up to 3 days) and inconsistent (162).

Verdict: Elimination diets may help identify food sensitivities that could trigger migraine attacks. However, evidence to support their use is very limited.

Ketogenic diet

The ketogenic diet may protect against migraine by reducing neuroinflammation, improving mitochondrial dysfunction, and suppressing cortical spreading depression (CSD) (163, 164).

A 2021 study in people with treatment-resistant chronic migraine found that a 3-month ketogenic diet reduced migraine attack frequency (-22.5 days/month) and duration (-18.5 hours/attack) (165).

According to recent systematic reviews, research on the effects of the keto diet for migraine is very limited. However, most studies have shown a reduction in the number and severity of migraine attacks (166, 167)

Verdict: Ketogenic diets may reduce migraine frequency by more than half, but more research is needed. It can also be difficult to follow, and there are concerns about long-term effects.

Low glycemic diet

Research suggests that low-glycemic index (GI) diets may reduce migraine frequency and severity by preventing fluctuations in blood glucose levels that could trigger migraine attacks (168).

Generally, whole foods like fruits, vegetables, dairy products, whole grains, legumes, and nuts are considered low GI, while refined grains, potatoes, and sugars are moderate or high GI (169).

A 2018 study found that a low-GI diet reduced migraine frequency (-4.1 attacks/month) and symptom scores as effectively as preventative medications after 3 months (168).

In a separate study, a 3-month low-GI diet significantly reduced migraine frequency (-9.5 attacks/month) to a similar degree as a ketogenic diet (-9.4 attacks/month) (170).

It’s worth noting, however, that the low-GI diet protocol in this study was only slightly higher in carbohydrates (40-60 grams/day) than the ketogenic diet (30 grams/day).

Verdict: Low-glycemic diets seem to be effective for reducing migraine symptoms, especially when they also restrict carbohydrate intake.

Nutrients to monitor

Certain nutrients, particularly magnesium, riboflavin, vitamin D, and omega-3s, may be helpful for reducing migraine frequency and severity.

Magnesium

People with migraines are more likely to have low magnesium levels (171, 172, 173, 174, 175). In one study, those with low serum magnesium were up to 35 times more likely to have migraine attacks (176).

Magnesium may play a role in preventing migraines by blocking cortical spreading depression (CSD), inhibiting pain-related neurotransmitters, and protecting against neuroinflammation (124, 177).

There is evidence to suggest that magnesium supplementation (400-600 mg/day) might be effective for reducing the frequency and duration of migraine attacks (178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183).

Magnesium citrate is a highly bioavailable form that has been widely studied and recommended for migraine prevention (182, 184). Magnesium glycinate and threonate are also commonly used.

For more information on supplementation, read What Is The Best Magnesium for Migraines?

Riboflavin

Riboflavin plays various roles in reducing oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation, all of which may be involved in the development of migraine (185).

A 2022 meta-analysis of 9 studies found that supplementing with riboflavin significantly decreased migraine frequency by an average of two attacks per month (186).

Most studies have used daily doses of 400 mg of riboflavin for at least 3 months. The body can’t actually absorb more than 27 mg of riboflavin at a time, but lower doses haven’t been studied (186, 187).

You can purchase riboflavin supplements in 400 mg capsules or tablets through Seeking Health or Integrative Therapeutics.

Vitamin D

People with migraine are twice as likely to be deficient in vitamin D compared to people without migraine (188).

Vitamin D has anti-inflammatory properties which may be responsible for its effects on migraines. It also influences dopamine and serotonin levels, as well as magnesium absorption (189).

A 2021 meta-analysis of 6 RCTs found that vitamin D supplementation significantly reduced migraine frequency (-2.7 attacks/month) but not duration or severity (190).

Daily doses ranged from 1,000 to 4,000 IU/day (191). However, higher doses (up to 5,000 IU/day) might be needed to reach adequate serum 25(OH)D levels in deficient individuals (192, 193).

Omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids may play a role in the treatment of migraines by reducing neuroinflammation, inhibiting pain responses, and preventing blood vessels from dilating (194).

A 2024 meta-analysis of 40 RCTs found that supplementation with high-dose EPA/DHA decreased migraine frequency (-1.3 attacks/month) and severity more effectively than certain medications (194).

Doses of at least 1500 mg (1.5 g) per day of combined EPA and DHA seem to be most effective (194). This can be achieved through diet (fatty fish and other seafood) or supplements (fish or algal oil).

Vitamins B6, B9, and B12

Certain B vitamins may protect against migraine attacks due to their role in reducing levels of homocysteine, an amino acid that can cause inflammation and blood vessel damage (51).

Consuming higher amounts of vitamins B6 (pyridoxine) and B9 (folate) is linked with a lower risk of migraine, and people with migraine tend to have lower levels of vitamin B12 (cobalamin) (195, 196, 197).

Several trials have found that supplementation with these B vitamins (alone or combined) for 3 months reduces migraine frequency (-2-3 attacks/month) and severity compared to placebo (198, 199).

Doses in these studies were as follows: 2-5 mg/day for folic acid, 80 mg/day for vitamin B6, and 500 mcg/day for vitamin B12.

Evidence suggests that lower doses may not be effective. For example, in a 2016 trial, supplementation with a combination of folic acid (1 mg), B6 (25 mg), and B12 (400 mcg) showed no significant effect on migraine outcomes (200).

Further studies are needed, but it may be helpful to test B6, B9, and B12 status in people with migraine and consider supplementing if indicated.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E inhibits the production of prostaglandins, a group of inflammatory compounds that are thought to be involved in the development of menstrual migraine attacks (51).

An older trial found that vitamin E (400 IU/day) taken 2 days before to 3 days after menstruation significantly reduced headache severity, as well as light/sound sensitivity after 2 cycles (201).

Another study showed a reduction in migraine frequency (-3 days/month) in participants who received a supplement containing vitamin E (500 IU/day), along with NAC (1,200 mg/day) and vitamin C (1,000 mg/day) (202).

More research is needed before vitamin E can be routinely recommended for migraine prevention, but a clinical trial comparing vitamin E to oral contraceptives is currently in the works (203).

Supplements to consider

Coenzyme Q10 and melatonin have the most evidence to support their use for migraine prevention. Ginger, on the other hand, seems to be effective for aborting migraines.

Butterbur

What it is
Butterbur (Petasites hybridus) is an herb that has been used to treat migraines and allergic rhinitis (hay fever) (204).

What it does
Two older clinical trials showed that migraine frequency was reduced by more than 50% in patients receiving butterbur supplements (205, 206). More high-quality trials are needed.

How it works
The exact mechanism is unknown, but butterbur may work against migraines by lowering inflammation (204).

Recommended dosing
Studies have used 50-75 mg of butterbur extract twice daily (totaling 100-150 mg/day) for 3-4 months (205, 206).

Safety and side effects
Butterbur naturally contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), which may cause liver damage, so only certified “PA-free” butterbur supplements are recommended. Side effects are uncommon but may include nausea and diarrhea (207, 208).

Coenzyme Q10

What it is
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), also known as ubiquinone, is a fat-soluble, vitamin-like compound that is produced by the body and also found in foods, such as meat, dairy, eggs, and legumes (209).

What it does
A 2021 meta-analysis of 6 RCTs found that CoQ10 supplementation reduced the duration (-11 minutes) and frequency (-1.5 attacks/month) of migraine headaches (210).

How it works
CoQ10 has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and may play a role in improving mitochondrial function (211).

Recommended dosing
Doses typically range from 100 to 400 mg/day. Most studies have used the ubiquinone form, which tends to be cheaper than the ubiquinol form (210, 211, 212, 213).

Safety and side effects
CoQ10 is unlikely to cause serious side effects even at doses up to 1200 mg/day. Some people may experience mild gastrointestinal symptoms and insomnia (209).

Curcumin

What it is
Curcumin is the active component of turmeric, a root that is used as a spice. It has a bright yellow color and is often used in curries, especially in Indian cuisine (214).

What it does
According to a 2023 review, evidence from 5 clinical trials suggests that curcumin reduces inflammatory markers in people with migraine. Effects on migraine symptoms are mixed (214).

Several studies using a more bioavailable form, known as nano-curcumin, have shown significant reductions in migraine attack frequency, severity, and duration (215, 216).

How it works
Curcumin has strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. It has also been shown to decrease CGRP, a neuropeptide that is released during migraine attacks (214, 217).

Recommended dosing
For migraine prevention, dosing is typically 500 mg twice daily for standard curcumin supplements, or 80 mg/day for nano-curcumin. Products that include piperine may be better absorbed (214).

Safety and side effects
A small number of people experience mild symptoms such as diarrhea and headaches at doses of 1,000 mg or more. In rare cases, skin rashes have also been reported (218).

DAO enzyme

What it is
Diamine oxidase (DAO) is an enzyme responsible for breaking down histamine, a compound released from immune cells that may play a role in triggering migraine symptoms (32, 219).

What it does
In a 2019 RCT, 100 people with episodic migraine and DAO deficiency (<80 HDU/ml) were randomized to receive either DAO enzyme supplementation or a placebo for one month (220).

Those in the DAO enzyme group experienced a significant reduction in the duration of migraine (-1.4 hours). The number of migraine attacks also decreased but did not reach significance.

How it works
People with migraine have higher rates of DAO deficiency. Supplements help to restore DAO levels, allowing for the breakdown of more histamine (47).

Recommended dosing
In the previously mentioned trial, participants received 2 capsules before every meal, and each capsule contained 4.2mg of porcine kidney extract with DAO activity of 10,000 HDU/ml (220).

Safety and side effects
Research on the safety of DAO enzyme supplements is lacking. So far, available studies haven’t reported any adverse effects (219, 220).

Feverfew

What it is
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) is an herb belonging to the Asteraceae (daisy) family. Its main active compound is parthenolide, which is found in the leaves (221).

What it does
Older, smaller clinical trials evaluating the effects of feverfew on migraines have reported conflicting results (222, 223, 224, 225, 226).

However, a larger 2005 study found that supplementation with feverfew extract significantly reduced migraine frequency by 1.9 attacks per month (227).

How it works
The exact mechanism is unknown, but parthenolide found in feverfew may combat migraine attacks by inhibiting prostaglandin release and regulating blood vessel constriction (222)

Recommended dosing
For migraine prevention, the most commonly recommended dose is 100-300 mg, up to 4 times daily, using supplements standardized to contain 0.2-0.4% parthenolide (221).

Safety and side effects
Side effects are typically mild and mainly include gastrointestinal symptoms. Feverfew is not recommended for children or people who are pregnant or breastfeeding (221).

Ginger

What it is
Ginger root (Zingiber officinale) is a spice that is used in cooking and as a supplement. Its main active compounds are gingerols, shogaols, and paradols (228).

What it does
Several trials have found that ginger extract (250-400 mg) is effective for reducing migraine severity when taken after a migraine begins (229, 230).

How it works
Ginger’s active compounds may alleviate pain by decreasing the production of prostaglandins, a group of fat-like compounds involved in inflammatory responses (229).

Recommended dosing
Studies have used between 250 and 400 mg of ginger extract taken at the onset of a migraine attack. It is not typically used as a daily preventative (229, 230).

Safety and side effects
Ginger is considered safe in doses up to 4 grams/day. Higher doses increase the risk for gastrointestinal side effects, including acid reflux, heartburn, and diarrhea (228).

Melatonin

What it is
Melatonin is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland and regulates the sleep-wake cycle. It is most often used to treat insomnia and other sleep disorders (231).

What it does
A 2020 meta-analysis of 25 RCTs found that immediate-release melatonin (3 mg/day) taken at bedtime significantly reduced migraine frequency (-1.7 days/month) (232).

How it works
Melatonin may prevent migraine attacks by regulating serotonin and dopamine secretion and inhibiting the release of CGRP, prostaglandins, and other inflammatory mediators (233).

Recommended dosing
The most commonly used dose is 3 mg/day of immediate-release melatonin, taken around bedtime (up to 2 hours before going to bed). This is the same dosing used for promoting sleep (231, 232).

Safety and side effects
Melatonin is considered safe at low to moderate dosages (5-6 mg/day) when taken for short periods (<3 months). It doesn’t seem to cause dependence, but long-term studies are needed (234).

Probiotics

What it is
Probiotics are live microorganisms (bacteria or yeast) that provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts (235).

What it does
Research is very limited. A recent meta-analysis found only 3 RCTs that qualified for inclusion and concluded that probiotics had no effect on the frequency or severity of episodic migraine attacks (236).

However, a 2019 RCT found that a 14-strain probiotic called Bio-Kult (4 billion CFU/day) significantly reduced migraine frequency (-2.64 attacks/month), severity, and abortive medication use (237).

How it works
Probiotics may reduce migraine attacks by regulating serotonin levels, reducing intestinal permeability, and preventing LPS-induced inflammation (236, 238).

Recommended dosing
Because products vary so widely in their composition, it’s best to use the dosing recommended on the supplement label. Generally, doses of at least 100 million CFU are needed to see health effects (239).

Safety and side effects
Certain strains of probiotics may produce histamine in the GI tract, which could potentially trigger migraines in some people. See our probiotics note for more information.

How does exercise affect migraine?

Intense exercise can be a migraine trigger for some people. However, over the long-term, regular exercise has been shown to reduce the frequency and severity of migraine attacks (240).

Yoga

Yoga may protect against migraine attacks by reducing stress, improving vagal tone, strengthening muscles that support the head, and increasing the mind-body connection (241)

A 2022 meta-analysis of 5 RCTs found that yoga significantly reduced migraine frequency and HIT-6 score (a measure of headache impact on daily life) but had no effect on pain intensity (242).

In most trials, participants completed 45-60-minute yoga sessions 3-5 days/week for at least 3 months (243, 244, 245).

Strength training

Some evidence suggests strength training may be slightly more effective for migraine prevention than aerobic exercise, possibly due to its ability to increase or preserve lean body mass (246).

A 2022 meta-analysis of 21 trials found that people who participated in strength training (50 minutes, 3 times/week) reported an average of 3.55 fewer migraine attacks per month (246).

Strength training sessions typically last 45-60 minutes each and are performed 2-3 times/week. Each session includes 2-3 sets of a variety of exercises with 12-15 repetitions in each set (246).

Aerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise increases the release of pain-relieving endorphins, reduces stress, and improves sleep, all of which could help prevent migraine attacks (247).

According to a 2022 meta-analysis of 21 trials, high-intensity aerobic exercise decreased migraine frequency (-3.1 attacks/month) more effectively than moderate-intensity (-2.2 attacks/months) (246)

It’s generally recommended to get around 150 minutes/week of moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise, spread out over several days throughout each week (248, 249).

Other alternative treatments

Acupuncture

Acupuncture is a technique originating from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that involves the insertion of very small needles into the skin in certain areas of the body (250).

It is thought to protect against migraine attacks by preventing the release of trigeminal neuropeptides (CGRP, PACAP, etc.) and reducing neuronal sensitization (sensitivity to pain) (251).

A 2024 meta-analysis of 34 RCTs found that people with migraine who received acupuncture therapy reported reduced migraine frequency (-2 attacks/month) and duration (-3.29 hours) (252).

Scalp acupuncture, in particular, was shown to be 24% more effective than ordinary acupuncture in a meta-analysis of 8 RCTs. This newer technique may relieve head pain and regulate blood flow (253).

Aromatherapy

Essential oils (lavender, peppermint, etc.) can be inhaled or applied topically, usually to the temples, to potentially relieve symptoms and promote relaxation during migraine attacks.

Limited research in animals suggests essential oils contain compounds that may inhibit migraine pain by reducing neuroinflammation and pain sensitization (254).

However, a 2024 meta-analysis of 7 trials found no significant difference in the number of migraine attacks in people who received various forms of essential oils compared to placebo (255).

Overall, evidence is lacking to support essential oils for migraine prevention. Some people may find them relaxing and stress-reducing, while others may be triggered by the strong scent.

Biofeedback

Biofeedback is a self-regulation technique that teaches you to control certain body functions that are normally involuntary, such as heart rate, breathing patterns, and skin temperature (256).

Scientists have hypothesized that biofeedback may protect against migraine attacks by promoting muscle relaxation and reducing oxidative stress (257).

A 2023 meta-analysis of 4 RCTs found that EMG biofeedback reduced the intensity of migraine attacks, but this did not reach statistical significance (257).

More research is needed before biofeedback can be routinely recommended for the prevention and treatment of migraine.

Cold therapy

Cold temperatures cause blood vessels to constrict, reduce inflammation, and slow nerve conduction, all of which might be helpful for counteracting migraine symptoms (258).

A 2023 meta-analysis of 6 studies found that cold interventions significantly reduced migraine pain for up to 30 minutes. Beyond this amount of time, they were much less effective (259).

For short-term pain relief during migraine attacks, consider using a cold cap (also called an ice hat). These products can be stored in the refrigerator or freezer until needed.

Ear piercings

It is thought that piercings to the daith, the ear’s innermost cartilage fold, may reduce migraine attacks by stimulating a pressure point associated with the vagus nerve (260).

The vagus nerve plays a key role in pain regulation, and stimulating it may block migraine pain signals. This is how gammaCore and certain other neuromodulation devices work (261).

Although there haven’t been any clinical trials, several case reports indicate that daith piercings may prevent migraine attacks. However, symptoms typically return within weeks or months (260, 262).

Green light therapy

A new potential migraine treatment exposes patients to a specific wavelength (525 nanometers) of light known as narrow-band green light, ideally in a dark room with no other light sources.

In animal studies, exposure to green light has antinociceptive effects, meaning that it reduces the body’s response to potentially painful stimuli (263, 264, 265).

A 2021 crossover trial found that 10 weeks of green light exposure (1-2 hours/day) reduced the migraine frequency by 5-13 days per month in participants with episodic and chronic migraine (266).

More research is needed, but a 2-year clinical trial is currently underway (267). Green light lamps can be purchased from Allay (through their website) or Hooga (available on Amazon).

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the best terminology to use when discussing migraine?

When discussing migraine, certain terms may not accurately portray the condition. The following language changes have been recommended (268):

Instead of…	You can say…	Because…
Migraines	Migraine	Using the term “migraines” may imply that the condition comes and goes. Migraine is an ongoing disease.
Migraine headaches	Migraine attacks/symptoms	Headache is just one of the many possible symptoms of migraine, and the headache phase is just one of four phases that may occur.
Migraineur	Person with migraine	Person-first language can help reduce stigma and build support.

What causes menstrual migraines?

Is it thought that the drop in estrogen that occurs before menstruation triggers migraine attacks in people who are hypersensitive to changes in estrogen levels (269).

More research is needed to understand why this occurs, but we do know that estrogen is involved in regulating pain responses and the production of neurotransmitters, including serotonin (270).

Resources

Information & Education

Migraine Tracking Apps

Migraine Buddy

Telehealth for Migraine

Neura Health

Facebook Groups

Amy Richter, MS, RDN

Amy Richter is a Registered Dietitian Nutritionist based in Missouri. She's an alumnus of Integrative & Functional Nutrition Academy (IFNA) and a nutrition writer/medical advisor for Healthline and Medical News Today. Amy's favorite activity is translating complex science into easy-to-understand articles for practitioners and laypeople.